Food Deserts: Nutritional Structural Violence

Often large cities in the U.S. are considered fully developed – but on what measure? In terms of food availability, resources are not always plentifully available in highly modernized areas. Urban areas don’t necessarily reflect successful ‘urbanization’ and this misconception is one of many that accompany poverty-stricken communities.

When access to fresh food is limited, too expensive, or even nonexistent – residents are known to be experiencing a food desert. As defined by Lindsey Getz, author of “Food Deserts: Where Healthy Options Are Only a Mirage,” individuals living in food deserts have poor access to healthy foods, but fast-food restaurants and convenience stores are abundant. A lack of nutritional choices in food deserts is fundamentally detrimental for a decline in overall health.

Structural violence is one of the many issues addressed by the Environmental Justice Movement because it prevents individuals from achieving their potential. In its most fundamental form, poverty is an example of structural violence because it is a state in which people are systemically denied resources to live. In the denial of adequate food access, low-income communities are undergoing structural violence.



Limited transportation access indicates high prevalence of food deserts in states
 with high populations of minority groups (Southwest and Southeast U.S.)



Development of communities and city-planning can be the answer for eliminating food deserts in urban areas. Increased implementation of public transit can be a huge factor in whether or not people can reach fresh, healthy food. For someone who must walk a long distance (often accompanied by children), or transportation is too long or costly; the likelihood of seeking out healthy alternatives is low. If development of affordable, mass transit for the public is pursued, it would open up the existing resources to a lot more people.

In addition, economic development (such as providing grants to supermarkets to expand their businesses) and education can give poorer families the tools they need to make wise and affordable decisions. Development of non-profit organizations in the community can result in farmer’s markets, community gardens, and other alternative methods of food obtainment. Successful urbanization efforts can create more livable urban areas for all groups by eliminating food deserts and the negative environmental justice consequences that accompany them.

Cananea Strike and Development

Cananea, Mexico, 1906; shows strikers in foreground and Arizona Rangers with guns in background

Evidence of development is laced in every aspect of our lives; from the cell phones that connect us to our social networks to the apple and snacks we pack for lunch, the evidence is all around us.  But it is often challenging to  see these products and commodities as evidence of development because the chain of production is not something we think about.  There is development in the history of products, and development in new technologies for faster, more efficient production.  There is social development with respect to the labor aspect of most of these products, or at least parts of them.


Throughout history, social development is often linked to industrial development.  In the Environmental Justice movement, this is visible in the mines of Cananea, Mexico, in 1906 (as well as 2007).  The Cananea copper mines employed about 5000 Mexican workers and 2000 American workers.  In 1906, most of the Mexican workers went on strike because not only were they making less money than the American workers, they were also working in hazardous, high risk conditions.  This strike demonstrates social development in that the Mexican workers formed unions and demanded the end to racial discrimination in wages, benefits, and living conditions.  Industrial development led to the formation of the mines to begin with, and as more technology needed copper, the mine needed more workers.   


As society makes advancements in technology and development, there is usually a trade off in that while many issues are resolved, there can be a creation of new problems.  In Environmental Justice, this is important because many times human health is sacrificed.  Cananea is an example because the health of the mine workers was being sacrificed for the production of copper.  Whether the mining of copper began with the knowledge that there where high health hazards is unknown and contested, but either way it defies basic human rights and the Principles of EJ.  

Cananea, Mexico
(http://www.inthesetimes.com/working/entry/5678/battle_brewing_between_mexican_miners_govt._after_court_rules_strike_i/)

The Cananea Mine strike ended brutally in 1906, and occurred again more recently in 2007.  The recent Cananea strike demonstrates that little has changed.  There is still an  extreme imbalance of power between the mine workers and the owner, and to the owner of the mine, worker safety is not worth as much as the $1.5 billion dollar loss caused by the strike.  To read more about the recent Cananea Mine strike, check out this article: http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/08/world/americas/08mexico.html

Human "Development" Within the U.S. is Decieving

The Human Development Index (HDI) is a ranking of countries by level of human ‘development’ – or in other words, standard of living. It compares life expectancy, literacy/education, and GDP per capita worldwide. According to the United Nations Environmental Program, the HDI “is about creating an environment in which people can develop their full potential and lead productive, creative lives in accord with their needs and interests.” On a global scale, economic development is not the only factor considered when measuring human development, yet there remains a strong correlation between high rankings on the HDI and developed nations in the Western world. Compared to other countries around the world, the United States has a high HDI ranking (15^th in the world at .950) and people generally have access to the necessary resources in order to reflect high “development.” But the HDI of individual states varies significantly.



Human Development Index, Global Comparison of Nations


Through Environmental Justice, we have learned that minority groups within the U.S. are not necessarily reaching this standard of personal development that has been identified for the nation of the whole. Environmental racism, devaluing of place-based knowledge, non-point sources of pollution and toxicity, and general suppression of poverty-stricken groups are all factors that contribute to unequal “development” distribution amongst U.S. citizens. So, does the high level of human development in the United States truly depict individuals reaching their “full potential”?

If we examine the three factors contributing to the HDI, it is apparent that injustices (environmental and otherwise) in the U.S. are fueling an inaccurate representation of the true human development level. Life expectancy is shortened by general disparate impacts of pollution and toxicity concentrated in low-income communities, not to mention the lack of available health care to those groups for general well-being. In my opinion, it is a misconception that the United States has the technology and modernization to keep its entire population healthy – especially when the social systems in place do not support implementation of available resources for all citizens. Secondly, literacy levels and education availability is not equitable. For minority groups, reaching high levels of education is made more difficult by societal prejudices and general unavailability of those resources in certain areas. Granted, any person living within the U.S. is likely to have more education opportunities than a citizen of a Third World nation – but often non-English speakers are put at a significant disadvantage. We are truly a nation of immigrants, yet barriers are in place to ensure that children who speak English as a second language are limited. Lastly, the huge gap between class groups in the U.S. leads to an unequal measurement of human development. The relatively small upper-class holds more wealth than the vast middle- and lower-classes, and this leads to a surprising level of poverty within a nation that is so highly ranked. The U.S. has rates of income inequality that are typical for countries in the developing world.



Human Development Index, United States Comparison



We can examine Human Development by state for insight into the discrepancy between our “score” as a nation, and the real conditions for groups facing injustices. The American Human Development report gives insight into regional patterns of development in the U.S., and when individually compared to other nations around the world, the results are shocking. Many states rank highly, with 14 states above .957, and are amongst countries such as Japan (.956), Sweden (.958), and Canada (.967). However, some states line up with countries that reflect lower development: North Carolina and South Korea have a similar ranking (.927), as does Georgia and Israel (.928). Even lower on the list are states like Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama which are comparable to nations like Turkey, Kazakhstan, and Ecuador. It is no coincidence that Southern states have the highest levels of poverty coupled with the highest numbers of minority groups, such as African Americans. Lack of available health care, infrastructure, and education (compounded by environmental injustices) has created a low “development” ranking within individual states which misrepresents the nation’s success as a whole.

For more specific rankings of nations and states, as well as further discussion, see the following blog site: http://mapscroll.blogspot.com/2009/05/human-development-index-by-state.html



"Water, water, everywhere, and not a drop to drink."

Documentary Blue Gold

“The EJM is...a struggle to rethink how we work and live and how we produce and reproduce, with an awareness of the impact of our livelihoods and life-styles on our bodies, communities, and the Earth as our shared life-support system.” (Pena, 2011, Structural Violence, Historical Trauma, and Public Health)


In Environmental Justice, we often talk about low-income communities that are facing problems of contaminated water, often caused by local industrial factories and toxic producers.  As an outsider studying EJ issues, it is fairly easy to see that these companies and factories are creating toxics that are harming the communities, so we are drawn to focus on these issues.  However, I think it is pertinent to take a step back and look at the big picture, and problems that are irreversible.  


If one examines the recent history of the United States and the world, from agricultural advancements to urbanization, it is apparent that many of the problems we face today are a direct result of development.  The problems we examine in environmental justice also involve these issues because many EJ issues are a direct result of the advancements made.  It is not to say that the advancements were made with the issues in mind, but many of those issues were unforeseen and not planned for. 


A major Environmental Justice problem many people are facing not only in the United State and Mexico, but also throughout the world is access to clean, safe water.  Water is essential for life, without it we would perish.  And it is often easy to forget that water is also important for production of items like food and commodities.  If we examines the amount of accessible freshwater in the world, we would find that it is less than 3% of the world's total water supply.  This is not very much water to support our growing populations and increasing need and exploitation of the water sources.  


The water crisis does not discriminate.  It will affect everyone, even those in water rich countries, but it many take a little longer to hit.  This is very much an Environmental Justice issue, as it impacts our communities, lifestyles, and livelihoods. For a full explanation of how the water crisis is increasing, watch Blue Gold. Watch it.     


Read more about the water cycle here:
http://www.nwrfc.noaa.gov/info/water_cycle/hydrology.cgi


(Title quote from Samuel Taylor Coleridge in his The Rime of the Ancient Mariner.)

NW Dams: Development with Negative Consequences for Minority Groups



The Grand Coulee today

Dams on rivers to generate hydroelectric power, especially in the Pacific Northwest, are superb examples of development as a double-edged sword. One key historical project (that continues to have social and environmental impacts today) is the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington State. In general, the damming of the Columbia River was slow to start as the West coast first began development and the energy needs of cities like Portland or Seattle were still low. World War I and II truly fueled the need for massive energy projects in order to make aluminum to build airplanes. As cities grew in the area, energy needs continued to expand and damming of the river continued. In particular, the Grand Coulee demanded an extraordinary amount of labor and resources to complete, and is still in progress today.


Workers on the Grand Coulee Dam faced dangerous tasks as they attempted to tame the mightiest river in the Pacific NW with a massive structure - built with enough concrete to construct a highway from Seattle to New York.


The environmental justice (EJ) implications are numerous and widespread; including everything from laborers on the dam construction to native communities being impacted. Many workers died in the building of these projects, not to mention the less-than-ideal working conditions for minorities on any construction job. For Mexican-American farm workers, the impact came in a surprising way. As the dam freed up more land for agriculture, and more water for irrigation, farming expanded in Eastern Washington and many farm communities benefitted. However, the laborers did not share the same advantages brought to owners/families by new, electrified farms. More farming land meant more workers, and a higher demand for labor that was illegal, with therefore less stringent regulation on wages and working conditions. With new immigrants in the area, and a widely expanding farming community, I believe this enabled a vicious cycle of minority group exploitation.

What does the Columbia mean to you? For many farm workers and indigenous groups, damming it meant more negative consequences and did not feel the economic benefits of hydroelectric power.

Perhaps the most significant impact caused by dams in the Northwest is the negative repercussions for Native American communities who utilize place-based knowledge and local resources for survival. Dams changed the landscape, and most importantly, altered the Columbia’s flow and all of its connecting estuaries, rivers and streams. Salmon rely on these waters for travel and reproduction, and when the flow is altered or access blocked by dams, salmon populations suffer immensely. Not only a ‘keystone’ species in NW ecosystems (meaning that without the species, other organisms within the ecosystem would collapse), salmon also has played a historically significant role in indigenous communities. Now as a minority group, Native Americans in the Northwest are suffering further from deprivation of their most basic resource: fishing and self-sufficiency from the rivers. Native Americans have legal standing to protect salmon habitat, but saving salmon (through protection) also would mean limits on fishing in many cases. Dam development enabled urbanization in the Pacific Northwest, but truly has a backlash for Native communities that are immeasurable in the context of advantages brought for others in the community.



Salmon as a keystone species - often depicted as the 'key' stone in an arch.

Offshore Developmental Impacts of Largest Wind Resource on East Coast

I came across this short article titled "Panel Makes Recommendations for North Carolina Offshore Wind Energy Development" and it described North Carolina's expansive coastline and abundant offshore wind resources in a way that made it seem resoundingly beneficial for economic development and job creation.  However, as that may be the case, it is necessary to invite the suggestions of local community members to see what they think about the new developments, because they are the ones who are going to be affected the most on a daily basis.

Many cases such as these are familiar to environmental justice advocates as they stress the importances of listening to local members of the community.  It doesn't hurt either to have a panel made up of scientific experts and environmental advocates who can educate the public as well. This is exactly what governor Purdue had in mind when he created his scientific advisory panel in 2009, which today is insisting on the continuation of offshore wind energy development in NC.

I believe that NC governor Bev Purdue and his panel are going about this the right way and should suffice as a good example of how to develop the right way.  As he acknowledges the risks of development: "the development of any sources of offshore energy...will likely have some socioeconomic and environmental impact...and challenges related to infrastructure development" he strengthens his case for pursuing wind energy development by letting others know that this is something to keep an eye out for.

URL: http://www.nawindpower.com/naw/e107_plugins/content/content.php?content.9374

Development and Indigenous Communities

Image from: http://www.heatingoil.com/blog/eskimo-and-environmentalist-groups-challenge-shells-alaskan-offshore-drilling-plan1218/

Indigenous communities are often threatened by development. It may not directly threaten the lives of these people, but by threatening the environment in which they live, eat, work, play, and pray, development might as well be threatening the very heart and soul of the community.  These communities function with nature, and rely on place-based knowledge and traditional environmental knowledge to continue.  It is a slow, balanced, communal way of life when compared to the fast-paced Western society that is so focused on individual advancement and wealth.

The Inupiat Community of the Arctic Slope is a perfect example of an indigenous community threatened by development.  For thousands of years, this Native Alaskan group has relied on whaling and marine mammals for "food and for culture."  In 2009, this subsistence way of life was threatened by a Shell Oil subsidiary's plan to start drilling in the Beaufort and Chuckchi seas - home to the whales on which the Inupiat rely.  This plan for drilling is an excellent example of development because it directly threatens the livelihoods and lifestyles of the Inupiat community.  The event raised many concerns among the Inupiats, such as the environmental risks resulting from the drilling - possible oil spills and dumping of drilling mud and wastes.  The possible pollutants could upset entire ecosystems in the Beaufort and Chuckchi seas.  

One of the articles listed at the bottom is heatingoil.com.  At the end of the article, author Steven Zweig states: "The Arctic is believed to hold 90 billion barrels of oil, over 8 billion of them in Alaska’s Beaufort Sea alone. Given that there are less than 50,000 Native Alaskans in total, a great many of whom are not dependent on whaling, it is a fair question to ask whether development that could help reduce oil prices and increase U.S. energy independence should be held up to protect the subsistence lifestyle of a comparatively small number of people—or would it be better to simply give those people a share of the resulting revenues?"  

Should the livelihoods and subsistence lifestyle of these native peoples be sacrificed for profit? One could argue that it is a sacrifice that must be made for the advancement of society.  But do we want a to be a society that is a mass consuming machine? A society that hungers for more resources and more commodities? Do we want to develop in a manner that destroys the natural environment?  We want to be moving away from reliance on fossil fuels, not only because the drilling process is degrading the environment, but also because the emissions that result from the use of these fossil fuels is degrading the environment.  We should be moving towards  a society that is reliant on sustainable resources, so as to preserve the environment for generations to come.   

To read more about the Inupiat community and Alaskan offshore drilling:

http://www.heatingoil.com/blog/eskimo-and-environmentalist-groups-challenge-shells-alaskan-offshore-drilling-plan1218/


http://indiancountrynews.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=8122&Itemid=79


http://ehp03.niehs.nih.gov/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1289%2Fehp.119-a116

"Green" Expands Definition of Environmental Justice

A documentary called "Green" (follow link to watch trailer or download film for free) depicts a collision of development and environmental justice that stretches from production in the Third World to consumption in the First World.


The film depicts deforestation in the tropics of Asia and the consequences that result: both for the environment (specifically the life of a misplaced orangutan) and for society. In summary, I believe it lends insight into the chains of production behind consumption in the Western world. A key question that arises for me is examining the true cost behind the systems: what is the price being paid and the social consequences implicated to manufacture products of the capitalist world?

"Green" shows extraction of trees for wood and paper products and for palm oil, and we are able to observe the entire line of production. A destructive pattern arises that exposes the darkness behind innocent purchases made in the First World - ecosystems are exploited, with animals & workers as victims, and 'justice' for everyone involved in the chain becomes non-existent. The real cost behind a magazine or inexpensive chocolate bar includes massive consequences to the environment and for the social structures along the way. But who pays for it? Third world social systems absorb the cost for the convenience of continuing capitalism: combining money and labor to find a commodity that can be widely sold.

Often in Environmental Justice, we have only been focused on negative environmental effects on minority groups in the U.S. - but 'justice' for those within nature surely expands beyond the Western world. Arguably, the consumption habits of even those low-income, underrepresented groups in America are contributing to the deprivation of another group elsewhere. One could argue that a low-income family living in a food desert in the U.S. is contributing to the negative environmental and social consequences halfway across the world.  By only being able to purchase low-quality convenience foods, packaged in paper products and made with palm oil, our hypothetical low-income family is a direct contributor to injustices examined in "Green". Our low-income family draws little connection between injustices in the U.S. (like food deserts in low-income communities) and injustices globally such as deforestation and labor issues surrounding the development of products soon to be sold in the U.S. Maybe solving the injustices on our side this double edged sword will help reduce the problems that derive from consumption patterns in the Western world. 

So the question remains: should we care (as consumers) about the entire chain of production? A true issue of the Tragedy of the Commons arises if the full system is included in our scope. And our consideration of fairness and equality ought to shift as a result.

The Dark Side of Eminent Domain: Lawful manipulation of vulnerable communities

The United States constitution gives explicit rights to the government to seize private property for its own public use (with just compensation of course). This is called Eminent Domain. Historically this right allowed for the seizure of property in order to construct essential facilities such as, schools, roads or police stations. It is clear that this government right was beneficial and probably somewhat necessary in many cases around the United States.

In these modern times however, more and more cases of unjust or abusive uses of Eminent Domain are being publicized. It is becoming increasingly common for the government to sell lots, homes or retail stores to private companies to be demolished and redeveloped for 'Urban Renewal.' This could include shopping malls, hotels, or sports stadiums with the justification that it will create jobs and stimulate the economy of the community. In some cases, home and landowners receive just compensation from the government for their property and the deal is fair. In other cases though, communities of color or low-income are targeted for these redevelopment projects. They are forced out of their homes and receive no compensation on the grounds that the property is "blighted" or in disrepair. For an excellent example of how a poor neighborhood was subjected to this lawful abuse one can visit Montgomery, Alabama.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rct8IeklcGQ

Ironically the city that was at the center of civil rights debates almost 60 years ago is once again faced with injustice, this time directed at the places that residents live. Rather than focusing energies and money on reviving the neighborhood through community organizing and shared decision-making, the land is being condemned and sold to private developers, leaving Montgomery citizens with very little power or voice. The situation in Alabama is almost identical to situations all over America. There are a vast amount of cases of this type of encroachment of property rights, using the excuse "Eminent Domain." Although there have been a few Supreme court cases that have been in favor of property owners and recognized the abuses of Eminent domain, there hasn't been anything that also incorporates it as a social and racial place-based issue as well. Affected citizens must continue to redefine this struggle as one of social, racial and environmental injustice in order to represent their concerns and needs as community members.

for more hefty information about the issue visit: http://scholarship.law.stjohns.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=lawreview